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A Critical Review of the Neuropharmacological Effects of Kratom: An Insight from the Functional Array of Identified Natural Compounds

Mechanism of Action: Octopamine replaces norepinephrine in sympathetic neurons with chronic use of monoamine oxidase inhibitors Dopamine beta-hydroxylase converts tyramine to octopamine Octopamine can be taken up into storage vesicles in nerve terminals, and then be released by nerve stimulation Octopamine exerts only a “small effect” on postsynaptic receptors compared to norepinephrine (hence the designation “false transmitter”) Notes: Octopamine typically exists in only trace amounts in the mammalian CNS, but accumulates when MAO is inhibited (e.g

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